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Archive-name: C-faq/abridged
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URL: http://www.eskimo.com/~scs/C-faq/top.html

[Last modified February 7, 1999 by scs.]

This article is Copyright 1990-1999 by Steve Summit.  Content from the
book _C Programming FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions_ is made available
here by permission of the author and the publisher as a service to the
community.  It is intended to complement the use of the published text
and is protected by international copyright laws.  The content is made
available here and may be accessed freely for personal use but may not
be republished without permission.

This article contains minimal answers to the comp.lang.c frequently-
asked questions list.  More detailed explanations and references can be
found in the long version (posted on the first of each month, or see
question 20.40 for availability), and in the web version at http://www.eskimo.com/~scs/C-faq/top.html
, and in the book _C Programming FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions_
(Addison-Wesley, 1996, ISBN 0-201-84519-9). 

Section 1. Declarations and Initializations

1.1:	How do you decide which integer type to use?

A:	If you might need large values (tens of thousands), use long.
	Otherwise, if space is very important, use short.  Otherwise,
	use int.

1.4:	What should the 64-bit type on a machine that can support it?

A:	C9X specifies long long.

1.7:	What's the best way to declare and define global variables?

A:	The best arrangement is to place each definition in some
	relevant .c file, with an external declaration in a header file.

1.11:	What does extern mean in a function declaration?

A:	Nothing, really; the keyword extern is optional here.

1.12:	What's the auto keyword good for?

A:	Nothing.

1.14:	I can't seem to define a linked list node which contains a
	pointer to itself.

A:	Structures in C can certainly contain pointers to themselves;
	the discussion and example in section 6.5 of K&R make this
	clear.  Problems arise if an attempt is made to define (and use)
	a typedef in the midst of such a declaration; avoid this.

1.21:	How do I declare an array of N pointers to functions returning
	pointers to functions returning pointers to characters?

A:	char *(*(*a[N])())();
	Using a chain of typedefs, or the cdecl program, makes these
	declarations easier.

1.22:	How can I declare a function that returns a pointer to a
	function of its own type?

A:	You can't quite do it directly.  Use a cast, or wrap a struct
	around the pointer and return that.

1.25:	My compiler is complaining about an invalid redeclaration of a
	function, but I only define it once.

A:	Calling an undeclared function declares it implicitly as
	returning int.

1.25b:	What's the right declaration for main()?

A:	See questions 11.12a to 11.15.

1.30:	What am I allowed to assume about the initial values
	of variables which are not explicitly initialized?

A:	Uninitialized variables with "static" duration start out as 0,
	as if the programmer had initialized them.  Variables with
	"automatic" duration, and dynamically-allocated memory, start
	out containing garbage (with the exception of calloc).

1.31:	Why can't I initialize a local array with a string?

A:	Perhaps you have a pre-ANSI compiler.

1.31b:	What's wrong with "char *p = malloc(10);" ?

A:	Function calls are not allowed in initializers for global or
	static variables.

1.32:	What is the difference between char a[] = "string"; and
	char *p = "string"; ?

A:	The first declares an initialized and modifiable array; the
	second declares a pointer initialized to a not-necessarily-
	modifiable constant string.

1.34:	How do I initialize a pointer to a function?

A:	Use something like "extern int func(); int (*fp)() = func;" .


Section 2. Structures, Unions, and Enumerations

2.1:	What's the difference between struct x1 { ... }; and
	typedef struct { ... } x2; ?

A:	The first structure is named by a tag, the second by a typedef
	name.

2.2:	Why doesn't "struct x { ... }; x thestruct;" work?

A:	C is not C++.

2.3:	Can a structure contain a pointer to itself?

A:	See question 1.14.

2.4:	What's the best way of implementing opaque (abstract) data types
	in C?

A:	One good way is to use structure pointers which point to
	structure types which are not publicly defined.

2.6:	I came across some code that declared a structure with the last
	member an array of one element, and then did some tricky
	allocation to make it act like the array had several elements.
	Is this legal or portable?

A:	An official interpretation has deemed that it is not strictly
	conforming with the C Standard.

2.7:	I heard that structures could be assigned to variables and
	passed to and from functions, but K&R1 says not.

A:	These operations are supported by all modern compilers.

2.8:	Is there a way to compare structures automatically?

A:	No.

2.10:	Can I pass constant values to functions which accept structure
	arguments?

A:	Not yet.  As of this writing, C has no way of generating
	anonymous structure values.

2.11:	How can I read/write structures from/to data files?

A:	It is relatively straightforward to use fread and fwrite.

2.12:	How can I turn off structure padding?

A:	There is no standard method.

2.13:	Why does sizeof report a larger size than I expect for a
	structure type?

A:	The alignment of arrays of structures must be preserved.

2.14:	How can I determine the byte offset of a field within a
	structure?

A:	ANSI C defines the offsetof() macro, which should be used if
	available.

2.15:	How can I access structure fields by name at run time?

A:	Build a table of names and offsets, using the offsetof() macro.

2.18:	I have a program which works correctly, but dumps core after it
	finishes.  Why?

A:	Check to see if a structure type declaration just before main()
	is missing its trailing semicolon, causing main() to be declared
	as returning a structure.  See also questions 10.9 and 16.4.

2.20:	Can I initialize unions?

A:	The current C Standard allows an initializer for the first-named
	member.

2.22:	What is the difference between an enumeration and a set of
	preprocessor #defines?

A:	At the present time, there is little difference.  The C Standard
	states that enumerations are compatible with integral types.

2.24:	Is there an easy way to print enumeration values symbolically?

A:	No.


Section 3. Expressions

3.1:	Why doesn't the code "a[i] = i++;" work?

A:	The variable i is both referenced and modified in the same
	expression.

3.2:	Under my compiler, the code "int i = 7;
	printf("%d\n", i++ * i++);" prints 49.  Regardless of the order
	of evaluation, shouldn't it print 56?

A:	The operations implied by the postincrement and postdecrement
	operators ++ and -- are performed at some time after the
	operand's former values are yielded and before the end of the
	expression, but not necessarily immediately after, or before
	other parts of the expression are evaluated.

3.3:	What should the code "int i = 3; i = i++;" do?

A:	The expression is undefined.

3.3b:	Here's a slick expression: "a ^= b ^= a ^= b".  It swaps a and b
	without using a temporary.

A:	Not portably; its behavior is undefined.

3.4:	Don't precedence and parentheses dictate order of evaluation?

A:	Operator precedence and explicit parentheses impose only a
	partial ordering on the evaluation of an expression, which does
	not generally include the order of side effects.

3.5:	But what about the && and || operators?

A:	There is a special exception for those operators: left-to-right
	evaluation is guaranteed.

3.8:	What's a "sequence point"?

A:	A point (at the end of a full expression, or at the ||, &&, ?:,
	or comma operators, or just before a function call) at which all
	side effects are guaranteed to be complete.

3.9:	So given a[i] = i++; we don't know which cell of a[] gets
	written to, but i does get incremented by one, right?

A:	*No*.  Once an expression or program becomes undefined, *all*
	aspects of it become undefined.

3.12:	If I'm not using the value of the expression, should I use i++
	or ++i to increment a variable?

A:	Since the two forms differ only in the value yielded, they are
	entirely equivalent when only their side effect is needed.

3.14:	Why doesn't the code "int a = 1000, b = 1000;
	long int c = a * b;" work?

A:	You must manually cast one of the operands to (long).

3.16:	Can I use ?: on the left-hand side of an assignment expression?

A:	No.


Section 4. Pointers

4.2:	What's wrong with "char *p; *p = malloc(10);"?

A:	The pointer you declared is p, not *p.

4.3:	Does *p++ increment p, or what it points to?

A:	*p++ increments p.  To increment the value pointed to by p, use
	(*p)++ .

4.5:	I want to use a char * pointer to step over some ints.  Why
	doesn't "((int *)p)++;" work?

A:	In C, a cast operator is a conversion operator, and by
	definition it yields an rvalue, which cannot be assigned to, or
	incremented with ++.

4.8:	I have a function which accepts, and is supposed to initialize,
	a pointer, but the pointer in the caller remains unchanged.

A:	The called function probably altered only the passed copy of the
	pointer.

4.9:	Can I use a void ** pointer as a parameter so that a function
	can accept a generic pointer by reference?

A:	Not portably.

4.10:	I have a function which accepts a pointer to an int.  How can I
	pass a constant like 5 to it?

A:	You will have to declare a temporary variable.

4.11:	Does C even have "pass by reference"?

A:	Not really, though it can be simulated.

4.12:	I've seen different methods used for calling functions via
	pointers.

A:	The extra parentheses and explicit * are now officially
	optional, although some older implementations require them.


Section 5. Null Pointers

5.1:	What is this infamous null pointer, anyway?

A:	For each pointer type, there is a special value -- the "null
	pointer" -- which is distinguishable from all other pointer
	values and which is not the address of any object or function.

5.2:	How do I get a null pointer in my programs?

A:	A constant 0 in a pointer context is converted into a null
	pointer at compile time.  A "pointer context" is an
	initialization, assignment, or comparison with one side a
	variable or expression of pointer type, and (in ANSI standard C)
	a function argument which has a prototype in scope declaring a
	certain parameter as being of pointer type.  In other contexts
	(function arguments without prototypes, or in the variable part
	of variadic function calls) a constant 0 with an appropriate
	explicit cast is required.

5.3:	Is the abbreviated pointer comparison "if(p)" to test for non-
	null pointers valid?

A:	Yes.  The construction "if(p)" works, regardless of the internal
	representation of null pointers, because the compiler
	essentially rewrites it as "if(p != 0)" and goes on to convert 0
	into the correct null pointer.

5.4:	What is NULL and how is it #defined?

A:	NULL is simply a preprocessor macro, #defined as 0 (or
	((void *)0)), which is used (as a stylistic convention, in
	preference to unadorned 0's) to generate null pointers.

5.5:	How should NULL be defined on a machine which uses a nonzero bit
	pattern as the internal representation of a null pointer?

A:	The same as on any other machine: as 0.  (The compiler makes the
	translation, upon seeing a 0, not the preprocessor; see also
	question 5.4.)

5.6:	If NULL were defined as "((char *)0)," wouldn't that make
	function calls which pass an uncast NULL work?

A:	Not in general.  The complication is that there are machines
	which use different internal representations for pointers to
	different types of data.  A cast is still required to tell the
	compiler which kind of null pointer is required, since it may be
	different from (char *)0.

5.9:	If NULL and 0 are equivalent as null pointer constants, which
	should I use?

A:	Either; the distinction is entirely stylistic.

5.10:	But wouldn't it be better to use NULL, in case the value of NULL
	changes?

A:	No.  NULL is a constant zero, so a constant zero is equally
	sufficient.

5.12:	I use the preprocessor macro "#define Nullptr(type) (type *)0"
	to help me build null pointers of the correct type.

A:	This trick, though valid, does not buy much.

5.13:	This is strange.  NULL is guaranteed to be 0, but the null
	pointer is not?

A:	A "null pointer" is a language concept whose particular internal
	value does not matter.  A null pointer is requested in source
	code with the character "0".  "NULL" is a preprocessor macro,
	which is always #defined as 0 (or ((void *)0)).

5.14:	Why is there so much confusion surrounding null pointers?

A:	The fact that null pointers are represented both in source code,
	and internally to most machines, as zero invites unwarranted
	assumptions.  The use of a preprocessor macro (NULL) may seem to
	suggest that the value could change some day, or on some weird
	machine.

5.15:	I'm confused.  I just can't understand all this null pointer
	stuff.

A:	A simple rule is, "Always use `0' or `NULL' for null pointers,
	and always cast them when they are used as arguments in function
	calls."

5.16:	Given all the confusion surrounding null pointers, wouldn't it
	be easier simply to require them to be represented internally by
	zeroes?

A:	Such a requirement would accomplish little.

5.17:	Seriously, have any actual machines really used nonzero null
	pointers?

A:	Machines manufactured by Prime, Honeywell-Bull, and CDC, as well
	as Symbolics Lisp Machines, have done so.

5.20:	What does a run-time "null pointer assignment" error mean?

A:	It means that you've written, via a null pointer, to an invalid
	location.  (See also question 16.8.)


Section 6. Arrays and Pointers

6.1:	I had the definition char a[6] in one source file, and in
	another I declared extern char *a.  Why didn't it work?

A:	The declaration extern char *a simply does not match the actual
	definition.  Use extern char a[].

6.2:	But I heard that char a[] was identical to char *a.

A:	Not at all.  Arrays are not pointers.  A reference like x[3]
	generates different code depending on whether x is an array or a
	pointer.

6.3:	So what is meant by the "equivalence of pointers and arrays" in
	C?

A:	An lvalue of type array-of-T which appears in an expression
	decays into a pointer to its first element; the type of the
	resultant pointer is pointer-to-T.  So for an array a and
	pointer p, you can say "p = a;" and then p[3] and a[3] will
	access the same element.

6.4:	Why are array and pointer declarations interchangeable as
	function formal parameters?

A:	It's supposed to be a convenience.

6.7:	How can an array be an lvalue, if you can't assign to it?

A:	An array is not a "modifiable lvalue."

6.8:	What is the real difference between arrays and pointers?

A:	Arrays automatically allocate space which is fixed in size and
	location; pointers are dynamic.

6.9:	Someone explained to me that arrays were really just constant
	pointers.

A:	An array name is "constant" in that it cannot be assigned to,
	but an array is *not* a pointer.

6.11:	I came across some "joke" code containing the "expression"
	5["abcdef"] .  How can this be legal C?

A:	Yes, array subscripting is commutative in C.  The array
	subscripting operation a[e] is defined as being identical to
	*((a)+(e)).

6.12:	What's the difference between array and &array?

A:	The type.

6.13:	How do I declare a pointer to an array?

A:	Usually, you don't want to.  Consider using a pointer to one of
	the array's elements instead.

6.14:	How can I set an array's size at run time?

A:	It's straightforward to use malloc() and a pointer.

6.15:	How can I declare local arrays of a size matching a passed-in
	array?

A:	Until recently, you couldn't; array dimensions had to be compile-
	time constants.  C9X will fix this.

6.16:	How can I dynamically allocate a multidimensional array?

A:	The traditional solution is to allocate an array of pointers,
	and then initialize each pointer to a dynamically-allocated
	"row."  See the full list for code samples.

6.17:	Can I simulate a non-0-based array with a pointer?

A:	Not if the pointer points outside of the block of memory it is
	intended to access.

6.18:	My compiler complained when I passed a two-dimensional array to
	a function expecting a pointer to a pointer.

A:	The rule by which arrays decay into pointers is not applied
	recursively.  An array of arrays (i.e. a two-dimensional array
	in C) decays into a pointer to an array, not a pointer to a
	pointer.

6.19:	How do I write functions which accept two-dimensional arrays
	when the width is not known at compile time?

A:	It's not always particularly easy.

6.20:	How can I use statically- and dynamically-allocated
	multidimensional arrays interchangeably when passing them to
	functions?

A:	There is no single perfect method, but see the full list for
	some ideas.

6.21:	Why doesn't sizeof properly report the size of an array which is
	a parameter to a function?

A:	The sizeof operator reports the size of the pointer parameter
	which the function actually receives.


Section 7. Memory Allocation

7.1:	Why doesn't the code "char *answer; gets(answer);" work?

A:	The pointer variable answer has not been set to point to any
	valid storage.  The simplest way to correct this fragment is to
	use a local array, instead of a pointer.

7.2:	I can't get strcat() to work.  I tried "char *s3 =
	strcat(s1, s2);" but I got strange results.

A:	Again, the main problem here is that space for the concatenated
	result is not properly allocated.

7.3:	But the man page for strcat() says that it takes two char *'s as
	arguments.  How am I supposed to know to allocate things?

A:	In general, when using pointers you *always* have to consider
	memory allocation, if only to make sure that the compiler is
	doing it for you.

7.3b:	I just tried the code "char *p; strcpy(p, "abc");" and it
	worked.  Why didn't it crash?

A:	You got "lucky".

7.3c:	How much memory does a pointer variable allocate?

A:	Only enough memory to hold the pointer itself, not any memory
	for the pointer to point to.

7.5a:	I have a function that is supposed to return a string, but when
	it returns to its caller, the returned string is garbage.

A:	Make sure that the pointed-to memory is properly (i.e. not
	locally) allocated.

7.5b:	So what's the right way to return a string?

A:	Return a pointer to a statically-allocated buffer, a buffer
	passed in by the caller, or memory obtained with malloc().

7.6:	Why am I getting "warning: assignment of pointer from integer
	lacks a cast" for calls to malloc()?

A:	Have you #included ?

7.7:	Why does some code carefully cast the values returned by malloc
	to the pointer type being allocated?

A:	Before ANSI/ISO C, these casts were required to silence certain
	warnings.

7.8:	Why does so much code leave out the multiplication by
	sizeof(char) when allocating strings?

A:	Because sizeof(char) is, by definition, exactly 1.

7.14:	I've heard that some operating systems don't actually allocate
	malloc'ed memory until the program tries to use it.  Is this
	legal?

A:	It's hard to say.

7.16:	I'm allocating a large array for some numeric work, but malloc()
	is acting strangely.

A:	Make sure the number you're trying to pass to malloc() isn't
	bigger than a size_t can hold.

7.17:	I've got 8 meg of memory in my PC.  Why can I only seem to
	malloc 640K or so?

A:	Under the segmented architecture of PC compatibles, it can be
	difficult to use more than 640K with any degree of transparency.
	See also question 19.23.

7.19:	My program is crashing, apparently somewhere down inside malloc.

A:	Make sure you aren't using more memory than you malloc'ed,
	especially for strings (which need strlen(str) + 1 bytes).

7.20:	You can't use dynamically-allocated memory after you free it,
	can you?

A:	No.  Some early documentation implied otherwise, but the claim
	is no longer valid.

7.21:	Why isn't a pointer null after calling free()?

A:	C's pass-by-value semantics mean that called functions can never
	permanently change the values of their arguments.

7.22:	When I call malloc() to allocate memory for a local pointer, do
	I have to explicitly free() it?

A:	Yes.

7.23:	When I free a dynamically-allocated structure containing
	pointers, do I also have to free each subsidiary pointer?

A:	Yes.

7.24:	Must I free allocated memory before the program exits?

A:	You shouldn't have to.

7.25:	Why doesn't my program's memory usage go down when I free
	memory?

A:	Most implementations of malloc/free do not return freed memory
	to the operating system.

7.26:	How does free() know how many bytes to free?

A:	The malloc/free implementation remembers the size of each block
	as it is allocated.

7.27:	So can I query the malloc package to find out how big an
	allocated block is?

A:	Not portably.

7.30:	Is it legal to pass a null pointer as the first argument to
	realloc()?

A:	ANSI C sanctions this usage, although several earlier
	implementations do not support it.

7.31:	What's the difference between calloc() and malloc()?

A:	calloc() takes two arguments, and initializes the allocated
	memory to all-bits-0.

7.32:	What is alloca() and why is its use discouraged?

A:	alloca() allocates memory which is automatically freed when the
	function which called alloca() returns.  alloca() cannot be
	written portably, is difficult to implement on machines without
	a stack, and fails under certain conditions if implemented
	simply.


Section 8. Characters and Strings

8.1:	Why doesn't "strcat(string, '!');" work?

A:	strcat() concatenates *strings*, not characters.

8.2:	Why won't the test if(string == "value") correctly compare
	string against the value?

A:	It's comparing pointers.  To compare two strings, use strcmp().

8.3:	Why can't I assign strings to character arrays?

A:	Strings are arrays, and you can't assign arrays directly.  Use
	strcpy() instead.

8.6:	How can I get the numeric (character set) value corresponding to
	a character?

A:	In C, if you have the character, you have its value.

8.9:	Why is sizeof('a') not 1?

A:	Character constants in C are of type int.


Section 9. Boolean Expressions and Variables

9.1:	What is the right type to use for Boolean values in C?

A:	There's no one right answer; see the full list for some
	discussion.

9.2:	What if a built-in logical or relational operator "returns"
	something other than 1?

A:	When a Boolean value is generated by a built-in operator, it is
	guaranteed to be 1 or 0.  (This is *not* true for some library
	routines such as isalpha.)

9.3:	Is if(p), where p is a pointer, valid?

A:	Yes.  See question 5.3.


Section 10. C Preprocessor

10.2:	I've got some cute preprocessor macros that let me write C code
	that looks more like Pascal.  What do y'all think?

A:	Bleah.

10.3:	How can I write a generic macro to swap two values?

A:	There is no good answer to this question.  The best all-around
	solution is probably to forget about using a macro.

10.4:	What's the best way to write a multi-statement macro?

A:	#define Func() do {stmt1; stmt2; ... } while(0)	/* (no trailing ;) */

10.6:	What are .h files and what should I put in them?

A:	Header files (also called ".h files") should generally contain
	common declarations and macro, structure, and typedef
	definitions, but not variable or function definitions.

10.7:	Is it acceptable for one header file to #include another?

A:	It's a question of style, and thus receives considerable debate.

10.8a:	What's the difference between #include <> and #include "" ?

A:	Roughly speaking, the <> syntax is for Standard headers and ""
	is for project headers.

10.8b:	What are the complete rules for header file searching?

A:	The exact behavior is implementation-defined; see the full list
	for some discussion.

10.9:	I'm getting strange syntax errors on the very first declaration
	in a file, but it looks fine.

A:	Perhaps there's a missing semicolon at the end of the last
	declaration in the last header file you're #including.

10.10b:	I'm #including the header file for a function, but the linker
	keeps saying it's undefined.

A:	See question 13.25.

10.11:	Where can I get a copy of a missing header file?

A:	Contact your vendor, or see question 18.16 or the full list.

10.12:	How can I construct preprocessor #if expressions which compare
	strings?

A:	You can't do it directly; try #defining several manifest
	constants and implementing conditionals on those.

10.13:	Does the sizeof operator work in preprocessor #if directives?

A:	No.

10.14:	Can I use an #ifdef in a #define line, to define something two
	different ways?

A:	No.

10.15:	Is there anything like an #ifdef for typedefs?

A:	Unfortunately, no.

10.16:	How can I use a preprocessor #if expression to detect
	endianness?

A:	You probably can't.

10.18:	How can I preprocess some code to remove selected conditional
	compilations, without preprocessing everything?

A:	Look for a program called unifdef, rmifdef, or scpp.

10.19:	How can I list all of the predefined identifiers?

A:	If the compiler documentation is unhelpful, try extracting
	printable strings from the compiler or preprocessor executable.

10.20:	I have some old code that tries to construct identifiers with a
	macro like "#define Paste(a, b) a/**/b", but it doesn't work any
	more.

A:	Try the ANSI token-pasting operator ##.

10.22:	What does the message "warning: macro replacement within a
	string literal" mean?

A:	See question 11.18.

10.23-4: I'm having trouble using macro arguments inside string
	literals, using the `#' operator.

A:	See questions 11.17 and 11.18.

10.25:	I've got this tricky preprocessing I want to do and I can't
	figure out a way to do it.

A:	Consider writing your own little special-purpose preprocessing
	tool, instead.

10.26:	How can I write a macro which takes a variable number of
	arguments?

A:	Here is one popular trick.  Note that the parentheses around
	printf's argument list are in the macro call, not the
	definition.

		#define DEBUG(args) (printf("DEBUG: "), printf args)

		if(n != 0) DEBUG(("n is %d\n", n));


Section 11. ANSI/ISO Standard C

11.1:	What is the "ANSI C Standard?"

A:	In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
	commissioned a committee to standardize the C language.  Their
	work was ratified as ANS X3.159-1989, and has since been adopted
	as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, and later amended.

11.2:	How can I get a copy of the Standard?

A:	Copies are available from ANSI in New York, or from Global
	Engineering Documents in Englewood, CO, or from any national
	standards body, or from ISO in Geneva, or republished within one
	or more books.  See the unabridged list for details.

11.2b:	Where can I get information about updates to the Standard?

A:	See the full list for pointers.

11.3:	My ANSI compiler is complaining about prototype mismatches for
	parameters declared float.

A:	You have mixed the new-style prototype declaration
	"extern int func(float);" with the old-style definition
	"int func(x) float x;".  "Narrow" types are treated differently
	according to which syntax is used.  This problem can be fixed by
	avoiding narrow types, or by using either new-style (prototype)
	or old-style syntax consistently.

11.4:	Can you mix old-style and new-style function syntax?

A:	Doing so is currently legal, for most argument types
	(see question 11.3).

11.5:	Why does the declaration "extern int f(struct x *p);" give me a
	warning message?

A:	A structure declared (or even mentioned) for the first time
	within a prototype cannot be compatible with other structures
	declared in the same source file.

11.8:	Why can't I use const values in initializers and array
	dimensions?

A:	The value of a const-qualified object is *not* a constant
	expression in the full sense of the term.

11.9:	What's the difference between "const char *p" and
	"char * const p"?

A:	The former declares a pointer to a constant character; the
	latter declares a constant pointer to a character.

11.10:	Why can't I pass a char ** to a function which expects a
	const char **?

A:	The rule which permits slight mismatches in qualified pointer
	assignments is not applied recursively.

11.12a:	What's the correct declaration of main()?

A:	int main(int argc, char *argv[]) .

11.12b:	Can I declare main() as void, to shut off these annoying "main
	returns no value" messages?

A:	No.

11.13:	But what about main's third argument, envp?

A:	It's a non-standard (though common) extension.

11.14:	I believe that declaring void main() can't fail, since I'm
	calling exit() instead of returning.

A:	It doesn't matter whether main() returns or not, the problem is
	that its caller may not even be able to *call* it correctly.

11.15:	The book I've been using always uses void main().

A:	It's wrong.

11.16:	Is exit(status) truly equivalent to returning the same status
	from main()?

A:	Yes and no.  (See the full list for details.)

11.17:	How do I get the ANSI "stringizing" preprocessing operator `#'
	to stringize the macro's value instead of its name?

A:	You can use a two-step #definition to force a macro to be
	expanded as well as stringized.

11.18:	What does the message "warning: macro replacement within a
	string literal" mean?

A:	Some pre-ANSI compilers/preprocessors expanded macro parameters
	even inside string literals and character constants.

11.19:	I'm getting strange syntax errors inside lines I've #ifdeffed
	out.

A:	Under ANSI C, #ifdeffed-out text must still consist of "valid
	preprocessing tokens."  This means that there must be no
	newlines inside quotes, and no unterminated comments or quotes
	(i.e. no single apostrophes).

11.20:	What are #pragmas ?

A:	The #pragma directive provides a single, well-defined "escape
	hatch" which can be used for extensions.

11.21:	What does "#pragma once" mean?

A:	It is an extension implemented by some preprocessors to help
	make header files idempotent.

11.22:	Is char a[3] = "abc"; legal?

A:	Yes, in ANSI C.

11.24:	Why can't I perform arithmetic on a void * pointer?

A:	The compiler doesn't know the size of the pointed-to objects.

11.25:	What's the difference between memcpy() and memmove()?

A:	memmove() offers guaranteed behavior if the source and
	destination arguments overlap.

11.26:	What should malloc(0) do?

A:	The behavior is implementation-defined.

11.27:	Why does the ANSI Standard not guarantee more than six case-

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