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Last-modified: 22 October 1999
Version: 1.17
31.11 What is Sarin nerve gas?.
Sarin is a nerve gas that was used in 1988 by Iraq against its Kurdish
population, and in 1995 by Japanese terrorists against Tokyo subway users.
Sarin and its companion nerve gases ( Tabun and Soman ) were discovered
in the late 1930s by Gerhard Schrader at I.G.Farben during research into
pesticides. The lethal dose for humans may be as low as 0.01mg/kg [18],
unless treated immediately. Sarin inhibits acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme
that breaks down acetylcholine. Acetylcholine carries signals between nerves
and muscles, and build-up causes over-stimulation of muscles ( including
the involuntary ones controlling eye, lungs, bowel ), which then go into
spasms. Treatment involves atropine ( shuts down the overstimulated nerves ),
or oxime drugs ( can prise Sarin off the enzyme ), and must be immediate.
More details and references can be found in the Merck Index.
There are many different methods of manufacture, but the Tokyo product
appears to have been prepared using a procedure involving phosphorus
trichloride and methyl iodide. The product was impure and diluted with
acetonitrile to improve volatility. To stockpile Sarin, the product has to
be pure ( 90-99% of the Iraqi Sarin degraded in < 2 years, whereas US Sarin
only degraded a few % over 30 years ). The standard US government procedure
( aka "di-di" ) starts with dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), and ends
with a distillation to remove impurities [19].
O O O O CH3
|| thionyl || HF || isopropyl || /
CH3-P-OCH3 ------> CH3-P-Cl --> CH3-P-F ---------> CH3-P-O-CH
| chloride | | alcohol | \
OCH3 Cl F F CH3
DMPP Dichlor Difluor Sarin (GB)
31.12 What are Dioxins?.
"Dioxins" are a group of closely-related compounds which are known as
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs). "dioxins" also commonly includes
polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). All organic molecules that contain
chlorine are also members of the "organochlorine" family.
1 9 1 9
2/ \ _o_ / \8 2/ \ ___ / \8
| O |_o_| O | | O |_o_| O |
3\ / \ /7 3\ / \ /7
4 6 4 6
Dibenzo-p-dioxin Dibenzofuran
As dioxins are fat soluble, they will accumulate in fatty tissue. In general,
it is only the biologically active ( molecules containing the 2,3,7,8
substitution ) congeners that accumulate, with levels of the higher
homologues predominating [20]. It is important to remember that of all the
dioxins and furans, only those containing 4 to 8 chlorine atoms, _and_ with
chlorine atoms in the 2,3,7,8 positions are currently considered toxic.
The compounds only containing 0 to 3 chlorine atoms are currently not
considered toxic, however once all four of the 2,3,7,8 positions are filled,
the most toxic congener is created ( 2,3,7,8 TCDD = "dioxin" ). As additional
chlorines are added, the toxicity decreases, except that 2,3,4,7,8
pentachlorodibenzofuran is more toxic than 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzofuran.
There is evidence that suggests concentrations of dioxins and furans in
human adipose tissue are falling [21]. The analysis for dioxin can reliably
detect ppq ( parts per quadrillion = picograms/kilogram ) levels, but some
evidence suggests dioxins may still have toxic effects at such low levels.
The toxicity of dioxins is currently being carefully assessed by the US EPA
- who are due to present a comprehensive report in the next few months. The
draft of the report, and various reviews, have been available for public
comment and external peer review. A good discussion of current perceptions
is available in a special report published in the January 1995 Environmental
Science and Technology [22], where both sides of the debate are presented.
Dioxins can arise naturally from forest fires, but the major sources are
from incineration and the manufacture and use of organic chemicals. The most
well-known source is perhaps as an impurity in the defoliant Agent Orange
which was widely used in Vietnam. Agent Orange was a 50:50 mixture of the
n-butyl esters of the herbicides 2,4-D ( 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ) and
2,4,5-T ( 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid ), and dioxin was present as
an impurity in the 2,4,5-T. Another well known incident was an industrial
accident at a 2,4,5-trichlorophenol manufacturing plant in Seveso, Italy
on 10 July 1976 which resulted in the release of 1-5 kg of dioxin.
Other dioxin sources involve combustion ( leaded gasoline, coal combustion,
metallurgical processes )[20].
As the various congeners have differing toxicity, dioxins are usually
reported using Toxic Equivalents systems. These assign to each congener a
toxicity factor relative to 2,3,7,8-TCDD, and these factors are used to
calculate the 2,3,7,8-TCDD Toxic Equivalent. The International Toxic
Equivalent Factor (I-TEF) system, proposed by the Challenges to Modern
Society Committee of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation is widely used.
Food is the major source of dioxins for humans, and typical dietary intakes
in the US for a 65kg adult were estimated to be between 18-192 pgTEQ/day [23],
and UK intakes were estimated to be 125 pgTEQ/day [20]. The Regional Office
for Europe of the World Health Organisation suggests 10 pg/kg body weight/day
for 2,3,7,8-TCDD ( 600 pgTEQ/day for 60kg person ), as a Tolerable Daily
Intake, whereas the US-EPA suggests an intake of 0.006 pg/kg/day over a 70
year life will lead to one excess cancer in one million people.
Sources of Dioxins in the UK diet pgTEQ/day
Meat, meat products, poultry, and offals 38
Cow's milk 23
Fats and oils 19
Milk products 12
Fish 7.7
Eggs, cereal products, fruit, and vegetables 25.3
31.13 What is Red Mercury?.
Red mercury is supposed to be a very powerful explosive that is being made
in Russian nuclear reactors. According to one report, it is a cherry red and
semi-liquid compound of pure mercury and mercury antimony oxide that is
irradiated for up to 20 days in a nuclear reactor [24]. It is claimed that
when incorporated in a fusion bomb, it can yield sufficient chemical energy
to fuse tritium atoms. Experts are sceptical that such an energetic compound
could be sufficiently stable to be used as an explosive, and no compelling
evidence for the existence of red mercury has yet been produced.
31.14 How do I remove stains and deposits?
- Test any planned treatment on an unimportant part of the material first,
(spots and holes aren't currently fashionable ).
- Chemicals for removing stains are often toxic and corrosive, handle with
care, and follow any provided safety instructions.
- Often stains are a diverse mix of chemicals, and the best solution is
to solubilise as much as possible, remove insoluble material through
washing, and then carefully bleach. Chemists should not assume they can
perform this process better than housewives.
- Some stains are more easily removed by physical means - such as using
abrasives ( household cleaning pastes, steel wool, metal polishes, etc ),
or freezing solid and scraping ( chewing gum ).
- The fresher the stain, the easier to remove. Avoid using hot water or soap
on unknown stains, and use solvents (eg glycerine) to help keep the stain
fresh. In cases when the stain is known to be water-soluble (eg bird
droppings ), it is often preferable to allow the stain to dry and carefully
scrape most away, before additional treatment.
- When using solvents, apply around the outer edge of the stain and work
towards the centre to prevent a stain ring forming.
- Many stains result from pigments, and they are seldom soluble, so once the
other components are removed, use physical agitation to remove the
insoluble material.
- Sometimes a dried stain can be "freshened" by using more of the stain
before treating - but use this approach very cautiously.
There are books on stain removal [25,26,27], and many of the common recipes
are also often found in some home-care and cookery books. Home-care magazines
also have question and answer sections that frequently include advice on
how to remove specific stains. Very few chemical books cover chemical
cleaning and stain removal, and smart chemists avoid offering to remove
stains :-). Common stains are usually attacked with the household chemical
arsenal that may include:-
* Absorbents - Cornflour, French chalk, fuller's earth, starch, talcum powder.
* Acids - Inorganic = hydrochloric ( galvanising remover, concrete cleaner ).
- Organic = acetic ( white vinegar ), citric ( lemon juice ),
tartaric ( cream of tartar )
* Alkalis - Sodium hydroxide ( drain cleaner ), ammonia solution,
* Bleaches - Sodium hypochlorite solution ( household bleach ), calcium
hypochlorite ( bleaching powder ), hydrogen peroxide
* Drycleaning Fluids - 1,1,1-trichloroethane, perchloroethylene.
* Enzymes - Pepsin
* Petroleum Fractions - mineral turpentine, kerosine, gasoline, white spirits.
* Sodium carbonate ( washing soda ), sodium bicarbonate ( baking soda ),
sodium tetraborate ( borax ).
* Solvents - Acetone ( nail polish remover ), amyl acetate, methanol, ethanol
( methylated spirits ), glycerine, toluene, xylenes, iso propyl
alcohol.
* Terpenes - Eucalyptus oil, citrus oil, camphor
Specific Stain Strategies.
Ballpoint - methylated spirits, fullers earth, glycerine.
Blood - cold salty water, cornflour paste, or dilute bleach.
Copper deposits on sink or bathtub - ammonia (1 hr) then detergent.
Chewing Gum - freeze, or sponge with eucalyptus oil.
Chocolate - methylated spirits, or soak in 5% borax solution
Lipstick - glycerine, eucalyptus oil, dry-cleaning fluids.
Rust - oxalic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid
Tar - toluene, xylenes, eucalyptus oil.
Tea or Coffee - glycerine, warm borax solution
Wine - glycerine, borax solution, lemon juice
31.15 How do I remove rust?.
It depends on the sample and amount of rust. If the material is heavily
rusted, then physical techniques ( sand blasting ) may be appropriate.
Chemical techniques on steel usually involve phosphoric acid, and the
concentration depends whether the treatment can be washed off. An
excellent discussion is available in Product Finishing [28], along with
simple formulations. For removing light rust without subsequent removal
of the solution, 15% phosphoric acid + 4% n-butanol + <0.1% sulfuric acid
is used, but if the solution can be washed away, then a faster acting
33% phosphoric acid + 2% n-butanol mixture is preferred.
31.16 How do I remove silver tarnish?.
Several commercial silver polishes use a fine abrasive ( such as calcium
carbonate ) to physically remove the tarnish, and also include in their
formulation components ( such as benzotriazole ), that form complexes or
films that slow the reappearance of tarnish. There are also a variety of
chemical tarnish removers that contain sulfuric acid, sodium thiosulfate,
or hot sodium phosphate, a chemical formulary should contain recipes.
A very popular technique for removing tarnish ( silver sulfide ), involves
an electrochemical cell that utilises the electrochemical series. In an
electrochemical cell, oxidation occurs at one electrode, whilst reduction
occurs at the other. Electrical contact between the two metals provides the
pathway for electron migration to occur from the anode to the cathode, and
when immersed in an electrolyte, charge will be balanced by transfer of
the sulfide ions.
The standard electrode potential at 25C of Ag+ + e- -> Ag is +0.799V, and if
the other metal is anodic relative to silver, the silver in the sulfide at
the cathode will gain electrons and revert to metallic silver. The metal
at the anode will be oxidized by the removal of electrons. The sulfide ions
can travel to the anode via the electrolyte. The electrochemical series
indicates metals that will work, and some readily-available and cheap metals
are iron, zinc, aluminium and magnesium. The standard electrode potential at
25C of Al3+ + 3e- -> Al is -1.66V, and aluminium foil is cheap.
When aluminium is the anode, and water is the electrolyte, the aluminium
surface will eventually be coated with an insulating film of aluminium
sulfide - which will gradually decrease the cleaning speed. Adding sodium
bicarbonate ( baking soda ) or sodium carbonate ( washing soda ) to the
electrolyte will assist in the evolution of hydrogen as the silver is
converted, and the hydrogen will combine with the sulfide ions to produce
some hydrogen sulfide gas ( rotten eggs smell ). The aluminium at the anode
will be converted to aluminium oxide.
Aluminium oxidises on contact with air, forming an insulating layer of oxide
that is present on the surface of foil, disposable alumimium dishes, or
pots that are commonly used as the anode when cleaning silver at home.
Such a layer is brittle, and can micro-crack in hot water, and the higher
temperatures can also increase the redox reaction rate. Cleaning formulations
may include sodium chloride ( table salt ), boric acid, or borax. It should
be noted that the process is not converting the silver back to the original
hard, lustrous surface, but into a soft, white powder that can be removed by
rubbing. The sulfide has actually dislocated some silver atoms from the metal
surface, and the cleaning treatment will not relocate them, but it will
eliminate the unsightly, dark, tarnish.
A typical procedure is to line a pyrex glass dish with alumimium foil so the
bright side of the foil will contact the solution. Add one litre of water,
and heat until near boiling. Add one tablespoon of sodium chloride and one
tablespoon of sodium bicarbonate, and gently stir to dissolve. Ensure that
the silverware has been washed in warm dishwashing detergents, and well
rinsed in warm water, to remove dirt and grease. Carefully add the silverware
to the dish, ensuring that each item is in contact with the aluminium foil,
and leave until the tarnish has disapppeared. Because no protective film
has been provided, the tarnish may reappear rapidly.
31.17 How do I electroplate or anodise materials?.
There are several excellent books and journals on metal treatments in the
hobbies and metalworking sections of public libraries. For the serious
plater, the journals Surface Finishing and Product Finishing discuss all the
the chemical and electrical aspects - including disposal and destruction of
wastes. Their Annual Handbooks, along with the Canning Handbook of
Electroplating, have many recipes and details for the serious electroplater.
In any metal finishing process, the preparation of the substrate is of
great importance, and the recommended sequence of cleaning, pickling,
plating, and especially passivating should be carefully followed.
Failure to correctly passivate newly-deposited protective surfaces is the
main cause of the rapid formation of unsightly corrosion products.
31.18 How fast do solvents pass through human skin?
It obviously depends on the solvents, and traditional measurements have
been made using dead skin, but some recent work has provided a simple
comparison of individual solvents. It must be emphasised that mixtures of
solvents may have significantly different rates [29].
Permeability Constants in g/m2h
Solvent Average Standard Deviation
Dimethylsulfoxide 176 42
N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone 171 59
Dimethylacetimide 107 19
Dimethylformamide 98 1.1
Methyl ethyl ketone 53 29
Methylene chloride 24 8.4
Water [^3H radiolabeled] 14.8 0.1
Ethanol 11.3 0.5
Butyl acetate 1.6 0.1
gamma butyrolactone 1.1 0.1
Toluene 0.8 0.7
Propylene carbonate 0.7 0.4
Sulfolane 0.2
31.19 What is the pH of Coca-cola?.
Phosphoric acid is an approved food-grade acid that is added to Coca-cola
to provide some of the taste. When CO2 is added to "carbonate" aqueous
solutions, carbonic acid is formed. A tin of coca-cola was cooled in a
refrigerator to 7C and the pH of the sample measured over time. The pH
electrode was not temperature-compensated, so a correction was applied.
Time pH pH
(when opened) (corrected)
Initial 2.75 @ 7C 2.6
30 seconds 2.78 @ 7C 2.6
60 seconds 2.80 @ 7C 2.6
2 minutes 2.82 @ 7C 2.7
4 minutes 2.80 @ 7C 2.6
A sample was degassed in an ultrasonic bath for several minutes and the
pH measured, and compared to a control sample maintained at the same
temperature and time profile.
pH
Degassed pH 2.52 @ 21c
RT sample 2.50 @ 20C
So the conclusion is that the pH of Coca-Cola is approximately 2.5 - 2.7.
Not surprisingly, the relatively weak carbonic acid from the dissolved CO2
did not significantly affect the pH of the beverage. The aluminium beverage
containers are lined with a thin polymer or lacquer coating to prevent the
aluminium metal dissolving into the beverage.
Note that the differing flotation characteristics of cans of the normal
versions of carbonated beverages like Coca-Cola ( they may sink ), and
the diet versions ( they may float ), has nothing to do with the amount
of CO2 present. It is due to the increase in solution density from the
few percent of sugar added to the normal version, while the diet version
has only a few hundred ppm of an artificial sweetener that is much sweeter
than sugar.
------------------------------
Subject: 32. References
Note: "Refer 6.1" = Section 6, Reference 1.
Section 6:
[1] Beilstein's Handbuch der Organischen Chemie - 4th edition
F.K.Beilstein
(edited by P.Jacobson, B.Prager, F.Richter, H.G.Boit et al)
Springer (1918-)
[2] Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards - 6th edition
L.Bretherick, ( edited by P.G.Urben )
Butterworth-Heinemann ( December 1999 ) ISBN 075063605X
[3] Chemical Abstracts Service
CAS Internet E-mail: help@cas.org
2540 Olentangy River Rd Customer Service Telephone: 800-753-4227
PO Box 3012 or 614-447-3600 or (614) 447-3731
Columbus, OH 43210 Telefax: 614-447-3751
Fax: (614) 447-3751
http://www.cas.org
[4] Advanced Inorganic Chemistry - 6th edition
F.A.Cotton, G.Wilkinson, C.A.Murillo, M.Bochmann
John Wiley & Sons (April 1999) ISBN 0471199575
[5] Reagents for Organic Synthesis.
L.F.Fieser, M.Fieser.
Wiley (1980-) ISSN 0271-6747(v1-7) ISSN 0271-616X(v8-)
[6] Gardner's Chemical Synonyms and Trade Names - 11th edition
George W. A. Milne (Editor)
Ashgate Publishing Company (July 1999) ISBN 0566081903
[7] Gmelin's Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie
E.Pietsch et al (editors)
Verlag Chemie (1926-)
[8] The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics - 9th edition
L.S.Goodman, A.G.Gilman, L.E.Limbird, P.B.Milinoff. (editors)
McGraw Hill (1996) ISBN 00702-62667
[9] Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary - 13th edition
R.J.Lewis (editor)
John Wiley & Sons (December 1997) ISBN 0471292052 ;
CD-ROM Van Nostrand Reinhold (March 1998) ISBN 0471291919
[10] Dictionary of Organic Compounds ( formerly Heilbron ) - 6th edition
J.Buckingham, F.MacDonald (editors)
Chapman & Hall (December 1995) ISBN 0412540908
[11] Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology - 4th edition.
Editor. M.Howe-Grant.
Wiley. ISBN 0-471-52681-9 (1993-) 25 volumes, approx. US$320/vol.
- available on CD-ROM.
[12] Lange's Handbook of Chemistry - 15th edition
J.A.Dean (editor)
McGraw-Hill (October 1998) ISBN 0070163847
[13] Martindale : The complete drug reference - 32nd edition
K.Parfitt (editor)
Pharmaceutical Press (April 1999) ISBN 085369429X
[14] Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design
J.J.McKetta
Marcel Dekker (1990-) ISBN 0-8247-2497-6
[15] A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry
J.W.Mellor
Longman (1922-1967)
[16] Merck Index - 12th edition
S.Budavari et al. (editors)
Chapman and Hall (1996) ISBN 0-911910-12-3
- available on CD-ROM for approximately three times the hardcopy price,
check out the Merck WWW site for details.
[17] Chemical Engineers' Handbook - 7th edition
R.H.Perry and D.W.Green (editors)
McGraw-Hill (1997) ISBN 0-07-049841-5
CD-ROM Version McGraw-Hill (January 1999) ISBN 0071344128
[18] Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Cincinnati, Ohio 45226.
[19] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 1999-2000 - 80th edition
D.R.Lide (editor)
CRC Press (June 1999) ISBN 0849304806
[20] Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials - 10th edition
N.I.Sax ( edited by R.J.Lewis Sr. )
John Wiley & Sons (November 1999) ISBN 0471354066
CD-Rom edition John Wiley & Sons (November 1999) ISBN 0471378607
Book & CD-Rom edition John Wiley & Sons (November 1999) ISBN 0471378585
[21] Shreve's Chemical Process Industries - 5th edition
R.N.Shreve and G.T.Austin
McGraw Hill (1984) ISBN 0-07-057147-3
[22] Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry - 6th edition.
Editors, J.E.Bailey, J.Brinder, M.Bohnet
VCH. Book & CD-Rom edition (July 1999) ISBN 3527201637
[23] Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative Chemical Analysis - 5th edition
A.I.Vogel
(previously Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis )
5th Ed. (revised by G.H.Jeffery et al) Longman (1989) ISBN 0-470-21517-8
4th Ed. (revised by J.Bassett et al.) Longman (1978) ISBN 0-582-46321-1
3rd Ed. Longman (1962) ISBN 0-582-44247-8
(Note - I personally prefer the 3rd edition which was the last written
by A.I.Vogel, he provided more alternatives for each analysis,
especially for titrations )
[24] Vogel's Qualitative Inorganic Analysis - 7th edition
A.I.Vogel
( previously Macro and Semi-micro Qualitative Inorganic Analysis )
7th Ed. ( revised by G.Svehla ) Longmans (1996) ISBN 058-221866-7
4th Ed. Longmans (1954) SBN 582 44246 X
( Note - I've never seen the 7th edition - I'm very happy with the 4th
edition, which was the last by A.I.Vogel )
[25] Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry - 5th edition
A.I.Vogel
5th Ed. (revised by A.R.Tatchell et al) Wiley (1989) ISBN 0582-46236-3
4th Ed. (revised by B.S.Furniss et al) Longman (1978) ISBN 0582-44250-8
3rd Ed. Longmans (1956)
( Note - the 3rd edition was the last by A.I.Vogel, but the 4th has the
advantage of discussing of modern techniques. I have not seen the 5th.)
[26] Vogel's Elementary Practical Organic Chemistry - 3rd edition
A.I.Vogel. ( revised by B.V.Smith and N.M.Waldron )
Longman (1980) ISBN 0-582-47009-99v10
Section 7:
[1] Refer 6.3
[2] Dialog
Knight-Ridder Information, Inc.
www http://www.dialog.com
email info@dialog.com
phone 800-334-2564, or 415-254-7000
fax 415-254-7070
[3] Information Sources for Organic Chemistry, 1-3.
A.S.Somerville
J.Chem.Ed v.68 p.553-561 (1991)
J.Chem.Ed v.68 p.842-853 (1991)
J.Chem.Ed v.69 p.379-386 (1992)
[4] Searching the Beilstein Database Online: A comparison of systems.
R.E.Buntrock, M.A.Palma
Database, December 1990. p.19-34
[5] A Wealth of Information Online
M.J.Mazzella
Chemical Engineering. June 1989 p.112-127
Section 9:
[1] What Every Engineer Should Know About Patents - 2nd edition
W.G.Konold, B.Tittel, D.F.Frei, D.S.Stallard
Marcel Dekker (1989) ISBN 0-8247-8010-8
[2] Chem Sources : International ( biennial edition )
Chemical Sources International, Inc.
P.O. Box 1824 Clemson, SC 29633
Phone: 864-646-7840 Fax: 864-646-9938
E-mail: csinfo@chemsources.com http://www.chemsources.com
[3] Chem Sources : USA ( annual edition )
Chemical Sources International, Inc.
P.O. Box 1824 Clemson, SC 29633
Phone: 864-646-7840 Fax: 864-646-9938
E-mail: csinfo@chemsources.com http://www.chemsources.com
[4] OPD Chemical Buyers Directory - 82nd edition
( issued as part of subscription to Chemical Marketing Reporter)
Scnell Publishing (1995) ISBN 1-878800-04-3
[5] The Aldrich Catalog/Handbook ( annual edition )
Aldrich Chemical Company
P.O.Box 355
Milwaukee. Wl 53201
Orders: Mail PO Box 2060, Milwaukee Wl 53201 USA.
Phone. 414-273-3850
Fax. 414-273-4979
Customer Service: Phone 414-273-3850
[6] J.T.Baker Inc.
222 Red School Lane
Phillipsburg. NJ 08865
Phone 800-582-2537
Fax. 908-859-9318
[7] Refer 6.19
[8] Refer 6.16
[9] Refer 6.12
[10] Refer 6.9
[11] Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants - 16th edition
G.W.C Kaye and T.H.Laby ( now by a panel of editors )
Longman (1995) ISBN 0-582-226295
[12] Chemical Technicians' Ready Reference Handbook - 4th edition
G.J.Shugar, J.T.Ballinger, and L.M.Dawkins
McGraw Hill (1996) ISBN 0-07-057186-4
[13] Matheson Gas Data Book - 6th edition
W.Braker and A.L.Mossman
Matheson Gas Products (1980) ISBN 999-267037-1
[14] McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology - 4th edition
S.P.Parker, J.Weil, S.R.Felsenfeld (editors)
McGraw-Hill (January 1998) ISBN: 0070526591
[15] Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia - 8th edition
D.Considine ( editor )
Van Nostrand Reinhold (1994) ISBN 0-442-01864-9
CD-Rom John Wiley & Sons (January 1999) ISBN 0471293237
[16] McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Chemistry
S.P.Parker
McGraw-Hill (1993) ISBN 0-07-045455-8
[17] McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology - 8th edition
S.P.Parker
McGraw-Hill (January 1997) ISBN 0079115047
McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology - 3rd edition
S.P.Parker
McGraw-Hill (June 1994) ISBN 0070455600
[18] Refer 6.11
[19] Refer 6.22
[20] Refer 6.1
[21] Refer 6.7
[22] Refer 6.10
[23] Refer 6.14
[24] Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering - 2nd edition
H.F.Mark et al (editors)
John Wiley (1985-1990) ISBN 0-471-89540-7(v1)
Concise Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia
J.C.Salamone
CRC Press (September 1998) ISBN 084932226X
[25] Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry - 4th edition
I.Heilbron et al (editors)
Longmans (1954)
[26] High Vacuum Techniques for Chemical Synthesis and Measurements.
P.H.Plesch
Cambridge University Press (1989) ISBN 0-521-25756-5
[27] High Vacuum Technique: Theory, Practice and Properties of Materials
- 4th Edition
J.Yarwood
Chapman and Hall (1967) ISBN 0-412-21190-4
[28] Swagelok Tube Fitting and Installation Manual
F.J.Callahan
Markad Service Co. (1985)
[29] Thermocouples: Theory and Properties
D.D.Pollock
CRC Press (1991) ISBN 0-8493-4243-0
[30] Merck KGaA
D-64271 Darmstadt
Germany
Phone ++496151/72-0
Fax ++496151/72-2000
[31] Rhone-Poulenc Prolabo Division
12 Rue Pelee
75011 Paris
France
[32] Sigma Chemical Company
P.O.Box 14508
St.Louis, MO.
USA 63178-9916
[33] Janssen Chimica Division
Janssen Pharmaceuticalaan 3
2440 Geel
Belgium
[34] Lancaster Synthesis Ltd
Eastgate, White Lund
Morecombe, Lancashire LA3 3DY
United Kingdom.
[35] Standard Infrared Spectra
Sadtler Research Laboratories
[36] The Aldrich Library of Infrared Spectra - 3rd edition
C.J.Pouchert
Aldrich Chemical (1981) ISBN 0-941633-07-1
[37] The Aldrich Library of FT-IR Spectra -2nd edition
C.J.Pouchert
Aldrich Chemical (1985-) ISBN 0-941633-20-9(v1&2), 0-941633-19-5(v3)
[38] Standard NMR Spectra
Sadtler Research Laboratories
[39] The Aldrich Library of C13 and H1 FT-NMR Spectra
C.J.Pouchert and J.Behnke
Aldrich Chemical (1992) ISBN 0-941633-34-9
[40] The Aldrich Library of NMR Spectra - 2nd edition
C.J.Pouchert
Aldrich Chemical (1983) ISBN 0-941633-08-X
[41] NIST/EPA/NIH Mass Spectral Data Base
S.R.Heller and G.W.A.Milne
US Govt. Printing Office (1978) NSRDS-NBS 63
CD-ROM ( MS-Windows - Aldrich Z25,737-0 US$1320 )
## http://www.nist.gov/srd/nist1.htm
[42] Wiley/NBS Registry of Mass Spectral Data
F.W.Lafferty and D.B.Stanffer ( editors )
John Wiley (1988)
[43] Industrial Chemical Thesaurus - 2nd edition
M.B. Ash, I.A. Ash
John Wiley & Sons (January 1997) ISBN 047118893X
[44] Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemical Additives
M.Ash and I.Ash
Chemical Publishing Co. (1987) ISBN 0-8206-0320-1
[45] Chemical Tradename Dictionary
M.Ash and I.Ash
VCH (1993) ISBN 1-569081-625-2
[46] The Chemical Formulary
( 35 volume series that is still growing )
Chemical Publishing Company (1933-) ISBN 0820603635 (1999 vol)
Cumulative Index - Volumes 1-34
Chemical Publishing Company (March 1999) ISBN: 0820603554
[47] The History of Chemistry
J.Hudson
Routledge Chapman and Hall (1992) ISBN 0-412-03641-X
[48] Chemistry of the Elements - 2nd edition
N.N.Greenwood and A.Earnshaw
Butterworth Heineman (1997) ISBN 0-08-0379419
[49] The Elements - 3rd edition
J.Emsley
Oxford University Press (1997) ISBN 0-19-855959-3
[50] Discovery of the Elements - 7th edition
M.E.Weeks ( revised by H.M.Leicester )
Journal of Chemical Education (1968) ISBN 0-317-09341-X
[51] The Chemical Bond: Structure and Dynamics
A.Zewail (Ed)
Academic Press (1992) ISBN 0-12-779620-7
[52] Chemistry in the Next Century
Thomas Midgley, Jr.
Ind.Eng.Chem. v.27 n.5 p.494-498 (1935)
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